Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Menstrual and reproductive factors, exogenous hormone use, and risk of thyroid carcinoma in postmenopausal women

  • Original paper
  • Published:
Cancer Causes & Control Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

To investigate the association of reproductive factors and hormone therapy, including type of hormone therapy, with risk of thyroid cancer in postmenopausal women.

Methods

We assessed these associations with risk of incident thyroid cancer in a cohort of 145,007 postmenopausal women enrolled in the Women’s Health Initiative. Over 12.7 years of follow-up, 296 cases of thyroid cancer were identified, including 243 with papillary thyroid cancer. Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate hazard ratios and 95 % confidence intervals for exposures of interest.

Results

In both age-adjusted and multivariable-adjusted analyses, menstrual and reproductive factors including age at menarche, age at menopause, age at first birth, age at last live birth, parity, duration of breastfeeding, miscarriages, stillbirths, hysterectomy, bilateral oophorectomy, and use of oral contraceptives were not associated with risk of all thyroid cancer or papillary thyroid cancer. In addition, ever use of menopausal hormone therapy, current or former use, duration of use, and type were not associated with risk.

Conclusion

We found little support for associations of reproductive or hormonal factors with risk of developing thyroid cancer. Importantly, our study showed no association of type of hormone therapy used with thyroid cancer risk.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Deceased.

References

  1. Ron E, Schneider AB (2006) Thyroid cancer. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni Jr. JF (eds) Cancer epidemiology and prevention. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 975–994

  2. Kohler BA, Ward E, McCarthy BJ et al (2011) Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975–2007, featuring tumors of the brain and other nervous system. J Natl Cancer Inst 103:714–736

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Cramer JD, Fu P, Harth KC et al (2010) Analysis of the rising incidence of thyroid cancer using the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results national cancer institute registry. Surgery 148:1147–1153

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Enewold L, Zhu K, Ron E et al (2009) Rising thyroid cancer incidence in the United States by demographic and tumor characteristics, 1980–2005. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 18:784–791

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Hodgson NC, Button J, Solorzano CC (2004) Thyroid cancer: is the incidence still increasing? Ann Surg Oncol 11:1093–1097

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Sakoda LC, Horn-Ross PL (2002) Reproductive and menstrual history and papillary thyroid cancer risk: the San Francisco Bay area thyroid cancer study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11:51–57

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Manole D, Schildknecht B, Gosnell B, Adams E, Derwahl M (2001) Estrogen promotes growth of human thyroid tumor cells by different molecular mechanisms. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:1072–1077

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Kumar A, Klinge CM, Goldstein RE (2010) Estradiol-induced proliferation of papillary and follicular thyroid cancer cells is mediated by estrogen receptors α and β. Int J Oncol 36:1067–1080

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Ron E, Kleinerman RA, Boice JD, LiVolsi VA, Flannery JT, Fraumeni JF Jr (1987) A population-based case-control study of thyroid cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 79:1–12

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. McTiernan A, Weiss NS, Daling JR (1984) Incidence of thyroid cancer in women in relation to reproductive and hormonal factors. Am J Epidemiol 120:423–435

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Galanti MR, Lambe M, Ekbom A, Sparen P, Pettersson B (1995) Parity and risk of thyroid cancer: a nested-case-control study of a nationwide Swedish cohort. Cancer Causes Control 6:37–44

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Galanti MR, Hansson L, Lund E, Bergström R, Gimelius L, Stalsberg H, Carlsen E, Baron JA, Persson I, Ekbom A (1996) Reproductive history and cigarette smoking as risk factors for thyroid cancer in women: a population based case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 5:425–431

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Rossing MA, Voigt LF, Wicklund KG, Williams M, Daling JR (1998) Use of exogenous hormones and risk of papillary thyroid cancer (Washington, United States). Cancer Causes Control 9:341–349

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Mack WJ, Preston-Martin S, Bernstein L, Qian D, Xian M (1999) Reproductive and hormonal factors for thyroid cancer in Los Angeles county females. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 8:991–997

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Rossing MA, Voigt LF, Wicklund KG, Daling JR (2000) Reproductive factors and risk of papillary thyroid cancer in women. Am J Epidemiol 151:765–772

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Iribarren C, Haselkorn T, Tekawa IS, Friedman GD (2001) Cohort study of thyroid cancer in a San Francisco Bay area population. Int J Cancer 93:745–750

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Memon A, Darif M, Al-Saleh K, Suresh A (2002) Epidemiology of reproductive and hormonal factors in thyroid cancer: evidence from a case-control study in the Middle East. Int J Cancer 97:82–89

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Truong T, Orsi L, Dubourdieu D, Rougier Y, Hémon D, Guénel P (2005) Role of goiter and menstrual and reproductive factors in thyroid cancer: a population-based case-control study in New Caledonia (South Pacific), a very high incidence area. Am J Epidemiol 161:1056–1065

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Silvera SAN, Miller AB, Rohan TE (2005) Risk factors for thyroid cancer: a prospective cohort study. Int J Cancer 116:433–438

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Wong EY, Ray R, Gao DL, Wernli KJ, Li W, Fitzgibbons ED, Feng Z, Thomas DB, Checkoway H (2006) Reproductive history, occupational exposures, and thyroid cancer risk among women textile workers in Shanghai, China. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 79:251–258

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Brindel P, Doyon F, Rachedi F, Boissin J-L, Sebbag J, Shan L, Changue V, Sun LYK, Bost-Bezeaud F, Petitdidier P, Paoaafaite J, Teuri J, de Vathaire F (2008) Menstrual and reproductive factors and the risk of differentiated thyroid carcinoma in native women in French Polynesia: a population-based case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 167:219–229

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Pham T-M, Fujino Y, Mikami H, Okamoto N, Hoshiyama Y, Tamakoshi A, Matsuda S, Yoshimura T (2009) Reproductive and menstrual factors and thyroid cancer among Japanese women: the Japan collaborative cohort study. J Women’s Health 18:331–335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Meinhold CL, Ron E, Schonfeld SJ, Alexander BH, Freedman M, Linet MS (2009) Berrington de Gonzalez A. Nonradiation risk factors for thyroid cancer in the U.S. radiologic technologists study. Am J Epidemiol 171:242–252

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Horn-Ross PL, Canchola AJ, Ma H, Reynolds P, Bernstein L (2011) Hormonal factors and the risk of papillary thyroid cancer in the California teachers study cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 20:1751–1759

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Schonfeld SJ, Ron E, Kitahara CM, Brenner A, Park Y, Sigurdson AJ, Schatzkin A, Berrington de Gonzalez A (2011) Hormonal and reproductive factors and risk of postmenopausal thyroid cancer. Cancer Epidemiol 35:e85–e90

    Google Scholar 

  26. The Women’s Health Initiative Study Group (1998) Design of the women’s health initiative clinical trial and observational study. Control Clin Trials 19:61–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Langer RD, White E, Lewis CE et al (2003) The women’s health initiative observational study: baseline characteristics of participants and reliability of baseline measures. Ann Epidemiol 13(9 Suppl):S107–S121

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Curb JD, McTiernan A, Heckbert SR et al (2003) Outcomes ascertainment and adjudication methods in the women’s health initiative. Ann Epidemiol 13(9 Suppl):S122–S128

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Libutti SK (2005) Understanding the role of gender in the incidence of thyroid cancer. Cancer J 11:104–105

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Davis PJ, Lin H-Y, Mousa SA, Luidens MK, Hercbergs AA, Wehling M, Davis FB (2011) Overlapping nongenomic and genomic actions of thyroid hormone and steroids. Steroids 76:829–833

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Kawabata W, Suzuki T, Moriya T et al (2003) Estrogen receptors (α and β) and 17 β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 and 2 in thyroid disorders: possible in situ estrogen synthesis and actions. Mod Pathol 16:437–444

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Lee ML, Chen GG, Vlantis AC, Tse GMK, Leung BCH, van Hasselt CA (2005) Induction of thyroid papillary carcinoma cell proliferation by estrogen is associated with altered expression of Bcl-xL. Cancer J 11:113–121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. La Vecchia C, Ron E, Franceschi S, Dal Mason L, Mark SD, Chatenoud L, Braga C, Preston-Martin S, McTiernan A, Kolonel L, Mabuchi K, Jin F, Wingren G, Galanti MR, Hallquist A, Lund E, Levi F, Linos D, Negri E (1999) A pooled analysis of case-control studies of thyroid cancer: III. Oral contraceptives, menopausal replacement therapy and other female hormones. Cancer Causes Control 10:157–166

    Google Scholar 

  34. Negri E, Dal Maso L, Ron E, La Vecchia C, Mark SD, Preston-Martin S, McTiernan A, Kolonel L, Yoshimoto Y, Jin F, Wingren G, Galanti MR, Hardell L, Glattre E, Lund E, Levi F, Linos D, Braga C, Franceschi S (1999) A pooled analysis of case-control studies of thyroid cancer. II. Menstrual and reproductive factors. Cancer Causes Control 10:143–155

    Google Scholar 

  35. Peterson E, De P, Nuttall R (2012) BMI, diet and female reproductive factors as risks for thyroid cancer: a systematic review. PLoS ONE 7:e29177

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA

    Geoffrey C. Kabat, Mimi Y. Kim, Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller & Thomas E. Rohan

  2. Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA

    Jean Wactawski-Wende

  3. Department of Preventive Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA

    Dorothy Lane

Authors
  1. Geoffrey C. Kabat
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mimi Y. Kim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jean Wactawski-Wende
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Dorothy Lane
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Thomas E. Rohan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Geoffrey C. Kabat.

Appendix: Long list OF WHI investigators

Appendix: Long list OF WHI investigators

Program Office

(National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland) Jacques Rossouw, Shari Ludlam, Dale Burwen, Joan McGowan, Leslie Ford, Nancy Geller.

Clinical Coordinating Center

(Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA) Garnet Anderson, Ross Prentice, Andrea LaCroix, Charles Kooperberg, Barbara Cochrane, Julie Hunt, Marian Neuhouser, Lesley Tinker, Susan Heckbert, Alex Reiner.

Regional Centers

:(Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA) JoAnn E. Manson, Kathryn M. Rexrode, Brian Walsh, J. Michael Gaziano, Maria Bueche; (MedStar Health Research Institute/Howard University, Washington, DC) Barbara V. Howard, Lucile Adams-Campbell, Lawrence Lessin, Cheryl Iglesia, Brian Walitt, Amy Park; (The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH) Rebecca Jackson, Randall Harris, Electra Paskett, W. Jerry Mysiw, Michael Blumenfeld; (Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford, CA) Marcia L. Stefanick, Mark A. Hlatky, Manisha Desai, Jean Tang, Stacy T. Sims; (University of Arizona, Tucson/Phoenix, AZ) Cynthia A. Thomson, Tamsen Bassford, Cheryl Ritenbaugh, Zhao Chen, Marcia Ko; (University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY) Jean Wactawski-Wende, Maurizio Trevisan, Ellen Smit, Amy Millen, Michael LaMonte; (University of Florida, Gainesville/Jacksonville, FL) Marian Limacher, Michael Perri, Andrew Kaunitz, R. Stan Williams, Yvonne Brinson; (University of Iowa, Iowa City/Davenport, IA) Robert Wallace, James Torner, Susan Johnson, Linda Snetselaar, Jennifer Robinson; (University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA) Lewis Kuller, Jane Cauley, N. Carole Milas; (University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN) Karen C. Johnson, Suzanne Satterfield, Rongling Li, Stephanie Connelly, Fran Tylavsky; (Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC) Sally Shumaker, Stephen Rapp, Claudine Legault, Mark Espeland, Laura Coker, Michelle Naughton.

Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study

(Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC) Sally Shumaker, Stephen Rapp, Claudine Legault, Mark Espeland, Laura Coker, Michelle Naughton.

Former Principal Investigators and Project Officers

(Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY) Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller (Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX) Haleh Sangi-Haghpeykar, Aleksandar Rajkovic, Jennifer Hays, John Foreyt; (Brown University, Providence, RI) Charles B. Eaton, Annlouise R. Assaf; (Emory University, Atlanta, GA) Lawrence S. Phillips, Nelson Watts, Sally McNagny, Dallas Hall,; (Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA) Shirley A.A. Beresford, Maureen Henderson; (George Washington University, Washington, DC) Lisa Martin, Judith Hsia, Valery Miller; (Harbor-UCLA Research and Education Institute, Torrance, CA) Rowan Chlebowski (Kaiser Permanente Center for Health Research, Portland, OR) Erin LeBlanc, Yvonne Michael, Evelyn Whitlock, Cheryl Ritenbaugh, Barbara Valanis; (Kaiser Permanente Division of Research, Oakland, CA) Bette Caan, Robert Hiatt; (National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD) Carolyn CliffordFootnote 1; (Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI) Jane Morley Kotchen (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland) Linda Pottern; (Northwestern University, Chicago/Evanston, IL) Linda Van Horn, Philip Greenland; (Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL) Lynda Powell, William Elliott, Henry Black; (State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY) Dorothy Lane, Iris Granek; (University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY) Maurizio Trevisan; (University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL) Cora E. Lewis, Albert Oberman; (University of Arizona, Tucson/Phoenix, AZ) Tamsen Bassford, Cheryl Ritenbaugh, Tom Moon; (University of California at Davis, Sacramento, CA) John Robbins; (University of California at Irvine, CA) F. Allan Hubbell, Frank Meyskens, Jr.; (University of California at Los Angeles, CA) Lauren Nathan, Howard Judd (See foot note 1); (University of California at San Diego, LaJolla/Chula Vista, CA) Robert D. Langer; (University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH) Michael Thomas, Margery Gass, James Liu; (University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI) J. David Curb (See foot note 1); (University of Massachusetts/Fallon Clinic, Worcester, MA) Judith Ockene; (University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, NJ) Norman Lasser; (University of Miami, Miami, FL) Mary Jo O’Sullivan, Marianna Baum; (University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN) Karen L. Margolis, Richard Grimm; (University of Nevada, Reno, NV) Robert Brunner, Sandra Daugherty (See foot note 1); (University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC) Gerardo Heiss, Barbara Hulka, David Sheps; (University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN) Karen Johnson, William Applegate; (University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX) Robert Brzyski, Robert Schenken; (University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI) Gloria E. Sarto, Catherine Allen (See foot note 1); (Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC) Mara Vitolins, Denise Bonds, Electra Paskett, Greg Burke; (Wayne State University School of Medicine/Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI) Michael S. Simon, Susan Hendrix.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kabat, G.C., Kim, M.Y., Wactawski-Wende, J. et al. Menstrual and reproductive factors, exogenous hormone use, and risk of thyroid carcinoma in postmenopausal women. Cancer Causes Control 23, 2031–2040 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-012-0084-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-012-0084-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation