Abstract
Fungi are eukaryotic, unicellular, or filamentous organisms that lack chlorophyll, have chitinous cell walls, and reproduce asexually, sexually, or both ways. All available evidence indicates that humans and animals contract most fungal infections by exposure to infectious particles originating from saprophytic moulds and yeasts growing in nature. Of more than 100,000 fungal species in our environment, only about 150 are known to be pathogenic. Their ability to invade body tissues and to produce disease depends on the virulence of the infectious particle, the infecting dose, the route of infection, the resistance or immune status of the host, the organs affected, and the coexistence of infections and other underlying medical conditions. A few fungi, such as the Candida spp., are endogenous, occurring as commensals on the skin and mucous membranes and in the gastrointestinal tract.1,2 These fungi, which are part of the normal body flora, are opportunists that only rarely infect the noncompromised, healthy individual. The Prototheca spp. are not fungi, but are considered by most taxonomists to be achloric mutants of green algae of the genus Chlorella.3 Nevertheless, diseases caused by the protothecae have traditionally fallen within the province of medical mycology and are therefore included in this chapter. For detailed information on the taxonomy of the fungi, several texts are recommended.2–5
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References
Introduction
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Blastomycosis
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Cryptococcosis
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Perkins W. Pulmonary cryptococcosis: Report on the treatment of nine cases. Chest 1969; 56: 389–394.
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Paracoccidioidomycosis
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Restrepo A, Robledo M, Giraldo R, et al. The gamut of paracoccidioidomycosis. Am J Med 1976; 61: 33–42.
Fountain FF, Sutliff WD. Paracoccidioidomycosis in the United States. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969; 99: 89–93.
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Cohen J. Antifungal chemotherapy. Lancet 1982;ii: 532–537.
Hermans PE, Key TF. Antifungal agents used for deep-seated mycotic infections. Mayo Clin Proc 1983; 58: 223231.
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Sporotrichosis
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Lurie HI. Histopathology of sporotrichosis. Arch Pathol 1963; 75: 92–109.
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Baum GL, Donnerberg RL, Steward D, Mulligan WJ, Putnam LR. Pulmonary sporotrichosis. N Engl J Med 1969; 280: 410–413.
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England DM, Hochholzer L. Primary pulmonary sporotrichosis. Report of eight cases with clinicopathologic review. Am J Surg Pathol 1985; 9: 193–204.
England DM, Hochholzer L. Sporothrix infection of the lung without cutaneous disease: Primary pulmonary sporotrichosis. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1987; 111: 298300.
Watts JC, Chandler FW. Primary pulmonary sporotrichosis. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1987; 111: 215–217.
Wilson DE, Mann JJ, Bennett JE, Utz JP. Clinical features of extracutaneous sporotrichosis. Medicine (Baltimore) 1967; 46: 265–279.
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Schwarz J, Baum GL. Fungus diseases of the lungs. Sporotrichosis. Semin Roentgenol 1970; 5: 55–57.
Comstock C, Wolson AH. Roentgenology of sporotrichosis. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med 1975; 125: 651–655.
Lurie HI, Still WJS. The “capsule” of Sporotrichum schenckii and the evolution of the asteroid body. A light and electron microscopic study. Sabouraudia 1969; 7: 64–70.
Maberry JD, Mullins JF, Stone OJ. Sporotrichosis with demonstration of hyphae in human tissue. Arch Dermatol 1966; 93: 65–67.
Mohr JA, Patterson CD,Eaton BG, Rhoades ER, Nichols NB. Primary pulmonary sporotrichosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1972; 106: 260–264.
Kaplan W, Gonzalez-Ochoa A. Application of the fluorescent antibody technique to the rapid diagnosis of sporotrichosis. J Lab Clin Med 1963; 62: 835–841.
Parker JD, Sarosi GA, Tosh FE. Treatment of extracutaneous sporotrichosis. Arch Intern Med 1970; 125: 858–863.
Restrepo A, Robledo J, Gomez I, Tabares AM, Gutierrez R. Itraconazole therapy in lymphangitic and cutaneous sporotrichosis. Arch Dermatol 1986; 122: 413–417.
Rohwedder JJ, Archer G. Pulmonary sporotrichosis: Treatment with miconazole. Am Rev Respir Dis 1976; 114: 403–406.
Baker JH, Goodpasture HC, Kuhns HR, Rinaldi MG. Fungemia caused by an amphotericin B-resistant isolate of Sporothrix schenckii. Successful treatment with itraconazole. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1989; 113: 1279–1281.
Gullberg RM, Quintanilla A, Levin ML, Williams J, Phair JP. Sporotrichosis: Recurrent cutaneous, articular, and central nervous system infection in a renal transplant recipient. Rev Infect Dis 1987; 9: 369–375.
Jung JY, Almond CH, Campbell DC, Elkadi A, Tenorio A. Role of surgery in the management of pulmonary sporotrichosis. J Thorac Cardioavasc Surg 1979; 77: 234–239.
Torulopsosis
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Marks MI, Langston C, Eickhoff TC. Torulopsis glabrata-an opportunistic pathogen of man. N Engl J Med 1970; 283: 1131–1135.
Yarrow D, Meyer SA. Proposal for amendment of the diagnosis of the genus Candida Berkhout nom. cons. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1978; 28: 611–615.
McGinnis MR, Ajello L, Beneke ES, et al. Taxonomic and nomenclatural evaluation of the genera Candida and Torulopsis. J Clin Microbiol 1984; 20: 813–814.
Lodder J. The yeasts. A taxonomic study. 2d Ed. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1970.
Katz D, Pickard RE. Systemic Torulopsis glabrata infection causing shock, fever and coma. Am J Med 1967; 42: 15 1152.
Louria DB, Belvins A, Armstrong D, Burdick R. Lieberman P. Fungemia caused by “nonpathogenic” yeasts. Arch Intern Med 1967; 119: 247–252.
Rodrigues RJ, Shinya H, Wolff WI, Puttlitz D. Torulopsis glabrata fungemia during prolonged intravenous alimentation therapy. N Engl J Med 1971; 284: 540–541.
Pankey GA, Daloviso JR. Fungemia caused by Torulopsis glabrata. Medicine (Baltimore) 1973; 52: 395–403.
Young RC, Bennett JE, Geelhoed GW, Levine AS. Fungemia with compromised host resistance. A study of 70 cases. Ann Intern Med 1974; 80: 605–612.
Valdivieso M, Luna M, Bodey GP, Rodriguez V, Groschel D. Fungemia due to Torulopsis glabrata in the compromised host. Cancer 1976; 38: 1750–1756.
Berkowitz ID, Robboy SJ, Karchmer AW, Kunz LJ. Torulopsis glabrata fungemia-a clinical pathological study. Medicine (Baltimore) 1979; 58: 430–440.
Kauffman CA, Tan JS. Torulopsis glabrata renal infection. Am J Med 1974; 57: 217–224.
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Vordermark JS, II, Modarelli RO, Buck AS. Torulopsis pyelonephritis associated with papillary necrosis. A case report. J Urol 1980; 123: 96–97.
Oldfield FS, Kapica L, Pirozynski WJ. Pulmonary infection due to Torulopsis glabrata. Can Med Assoc J 1968; 98: 165–168.
Aisner J, Sickles EA, Schimpff SC, Young VM, Greene WH, Wiernik PH. Torulopsis glabrata pneumonitis in patients with cancer: Report of three cases. JAMA 1974; 230: 584–585.
Sander LA, Young EJ, Musher DM, Clarridge JE. Torulopsis glabrata pneumonia in a malnourished woman. South Med J 1979; 72: 1477–1479.
Gustke KA, Wu KK. Torulopsis glabrata osteomyelitis: Report of a case. Clin Orthop 1981; 154: 197–200.
Thurston AJ, Gillespie WJ. Torulopsis glabrata osteomyelitis of the spine: A case report and review of the literature. Aust NZ J Surg 1981; 51: 374–376.
Rubin MM, Sanfilippo RJ. Osteomyelitis of the hyoid caused by Torulopsis glabrata in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1990; 48: 1217–1219.
Heffner DK, Franklin WA. Endocarditis caused by Torulopsis glabrata. Am J Clin Pathol 1978; 70: 420–423.
Holliday HD, Keipper V, Kaiser AB. Torulopsis glabrata endocarditis. JAMA 1980; 244: 2088–2089.
Miller DD. Postoperative acalculous cholecystitis due to Torulopsis glabrata. Arch Surg 1976; 111: 1404–1405.
Baley JE, Dliegman RM, Annable WL, Dahms BB, Fanaroff AA. Torulopsis glabrata sepsis appearing as necrotizing enterocolitis and endophthalmitis. Am J Dis Child 1984; 138: 965–966.
Wurzel B, Goldberg P, Caroline L, Bozza AT, Kozinn PJ. Torulopsis glabrata meningoencephalitis treated with 5-flucytosine. Ann Intern Med 1972; 77: 814–815.
Fitzsimons RB, Nicholls MD, Billson FA, Robertson TI, Hersey P. Fungal retinitis: A case of Torulopsis glabrata infection treated with miconazole. Br J Ophthalmol 1980; 64: 672–675.
Clark JFJ, Faggett T, Peters B, et al. Ulcerative vaginitis due to Torulopsis glabrata: A case report. J Nati Med Assoc 1978; 70: 913–914.
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Hahn H, Condie F, Bulger RF. Diagnosis of Torulopsis glabrata infection. JAMA 1968; 203: 835–837.
Rose HD, Heckman MG. Persistent fungemia caused by Torulopsis glabrata: Treatment with amphotericin B. Am J Clin Pathol 1970; 54: 205–208.
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Candidiasis
Rose HD, Varkey B. Deep mycotic infection in the hospitalized adult: A study of 123 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 1975; 54: 499–507.
DeGregorio MW, Lee WMF, Linker CA, Jacobs RA, Ries CA. Fungal infections in patients with acute leukemia. Am J Med 1982; 73: 543–548.
Maksymiuk AW, Thongprasert S, Hopfer R, Luna M, Fainstein V. Bodey GP. Systemic candidiasis in cancer patients. Am J Med 1984; 77 (4D): 20–27.
Schwartz RS, Mackintosh FR, Schrier SL, Greenberg PL. Multivariate analysis of factors associated with invasive fungal disease during remission induction therapy for acute myelogenous leukemia. Cancer 1984; 53: 411–419.
Hopfer RL. Mycology of candida infections. In: Bodey GP, Fainstein V, eds. Candidiasis. New York: Raven, 1985: 1–12.
Parker JC, McCloskey JJ, Knauer KA. Pathobiologic features of human candidiasis: a common deep mycosis of the brain, heart and kidney in the altered host. Am J Clin Pathol 1976; 65: 991–1000.
Myerowitz RL, Pazin GJ, Allen CM. Disseminated candidiasis: changes in incidence, underlying diseases, and pathology. Am J Clin Pathol 1977; 68: 29–38.
Kiehn TE, Edwards FF, Armstrong D. The prevalence of yeasts in clinical specimens from cancer patients. Am J Clin Pathol 1980; 73: 518–521.
Hughes WT. Systemic candidiasis: A study of 109 fatal cases. Pediatr Infect Dis 1982; 1: 11–18.
Marsh PK, Tally FP, Kellum J, Callow A, Gorbach SL. Candida infections in surgical patients. Ann Surg 1983; 198: 42–47.
Blinkhorn RJ, Adelstein D, Spagnuolo PJ. Emergence of a new opportunistic pathogen, Candida lusitaniae. J Clin Microbiol 1989; 27: 236–240.
Kozinn PJ, Taschdjian CL. Candida albicans Saprophyte or pathogen? JAMA 1966; 198: 170–172.
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Kassner EG, Kauffman SL, Yoon JJ, Semiglia M, Kozinn PJ, Goldberg PL. Pulmonary candidiasis in infants: Clinical, radiologic, and pathologic features. AJR 1981; 137: 707–716.
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Masur H, Rosen PP, Armstrong D. Pulmonary disease caused by Candida species. Am J Med 1977; 63: 914–925.
Bodey GP, Fainstein V. Systemic candidiasis. In: Bodey GP, Fainstein V, eds. Candidiasis. New York: Raven, 1985: 135–168.
Ramirez G, Shuster M, Kozub W, Pribor HC. Fatal acute Candida albicans bronchopneumonia: Report of a case. JAMA 1967; 199: 340–342.
Steven PJ, Jameson JW, Philpott CM. Fatal pulmonary candidiasis. Lancet 1972;i:962–963.
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Pagani JJ, Libshitz HI. Opportunistic fungal pneumonias in cancer patients. AJR 1981; 137: 1033–1039.
Pagani JJ, Libshitz HI. Radiology of Candida infections. In: Bodey GP, Fainstein V, eds. Candidiasis. New York: Raven, 1985: 71–84.
Dubois PJ, Myerowitz RL, Allen CM. Pathoradiologic correlation of pulmonary candidiasis in immunosuppressed patients. Cancer 1977; 40: 1026–1036.
Bode FR, Paré JAP, Fraser RG. Pulmonary diseases in the compromised host: A review of clinical and roentgenographic manifestations in patients with impaired host defense mechanisms. Medicine (Baltimore) 1974; 53: 255–293.
Buff SJ, McLelland R, Gallis HA, Matthay R, Putman CE. Candida albicans pneumonia: radiographic appearance. AJR 1982; 138: 645–648.
Hietala SO, Jonsson M, Burman LA. Candida albicans pneumonia. Acta Radiol [Diagnl (Stockh) 1982; 23: 507511.
Rose HS, Sheth NK. Pulmonary candidiasis: A clinical and pathologic correlation. Arch Intern Med 1978; 138: 964–965.
Kozinn PJ, Taschdjian CL. Laboratory diagnosis of candidiasis. In: Bodey GP, Fainstein V, eds. Candidiasis. New York: Raven, 1985: 85–110.
Gold, JWM. Opportunistic fungal infections in patients with neoplastic disease. Am J Med 1984; 76: 458–463.
Goldstein E, Hoeprich PD. Problems in the diagnosis and treatment of systemic candidiasis. J Infect Dis 1972; 125: 190–193.
Walsh TJ, Hathorn JW, Sobel JD, et al. Detection of circulating Candida enolase by immunoassay in patients with cancer and invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1026–1031.
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Nakamura T. Experimental pulmonary candidiasis in modified rabbits. Mycopathologia 1984; 85: 129–144.
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Aspergillosis
Pennington JE. Aspergillus lung disease. Med Clin North Am 1980;64:475–490.
Greene R. The pulmonary aspergilloses: Three distinct entities or a spectrum of disease. Radiology 1981; 140: 527–530.
Katzenstein AL, Liebow AA, Friedman PJ. Bronchocentric granulomatosis, mucoid impaction, and hypersensitivity reactions to fungi. Am Rev Respir Dis 1975; 111: 497–537.
Koss MN, Hochholzer L., Feigin DS, Garantis JC, Ward PA. Necrotizing sarcoid-like granulomatosis: Clinical, pathologic, and immunopathologic findings. Hum Pathol 1980; 11: 510–519.
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Young RC, Bennett JE, Vogel CL, Carbone PP, De Vita VT. Aspergillosis: The spectrum of the disease in 98 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 1970; 49: 147–173.
Pena CE. Aspergillosis. In: Baker RD, ed. The pathologic anatomy of mycoses: Human infection with fungi, actinomycetes and algae. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1971: 762–831.
Young RC, Jennings A, Bennett JE. Species identification of invasive aspergillosis in man. Am J Clin Pathol 1972; 58: 554–557.
Binder RE, Faling LJ, Pugatch RD, Mahasaen C, Snider GL. Chronic necrotizing pulmonary aspergillosis: A discrete clinical entity. Medicine (Baltimore) 1982; 61: 109–124.
Weiland D, Ferguson RM, Peterson PK, Snover DC, Simmons RL, Najarian JS. Aspergillosis in 25 renal transplant patients: Epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management. Ann Surg 1983; 198: 62 2629.
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British Thoracic and Tuberculosis Association. Aspergilloma and residual tuberculous cavities: The results of a resurvey. Tubercle 1970; 51: 227–245.
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Sinclair AJ, Rossof AH, Coltman CA. Recognition and successful management in pulmonary aspergillosis in leukemia. Cancer 1978; 42: 2019–2024.
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Henderson AH, English MP, Vecht RJ. Pulmonary aspergillosis: A survey of its occurrence in patients with chronic lung disease and a discussion of the significance of diagnostic tests Thorax 1968; 23: 513–518.
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Pervez NK, Kleinerman J, Kattan M, et al. Pseudomembranous necrotizing bronchial aspergillosis: A variant of invasive aspergillosis in a patient with hemophilia and acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 131: 961–963.
Kramer Mr, Denning DW, Marshall SE, et al. Ulcerative tracheobronchitis after lung transplantation. A new form of invasive aspergillosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144: 552–556.
Clarke A, Skelton J, Fraser RS. Fungal tracheobronchitis. Report of 9 cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 1991; 70: 1–14.
Gefter WB, Weingrad TR, Epstein DM, Ochs RH, Miller WT.“Semi-invasive” pulmonary aspergillosis: A new look at the spectrum ofAspergillus infections of the lung. Radiology 1981;140:313–321.
Palmer LB, Greenberg HE, Schiff MJ. Corticosteroid treatment as a risk factor for invasive aspergillosis in patients with lung disease. Thorax 1991; 46: 15–20.
Diamond RD, Krzesicki R, Epstein B, Jao W. Damage to hyphal forms of fungi by human leukocytes in vitro: A possible host defense mechanism in aspergillosis and mucormycosis. Am J Pathol 1978; 91: 313–328.
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Meyer RD, Young LS, Armstrong D, Yu B. Aspergillosis complicating neoplastic disease. Am J Med 1973; 54: 6–15.
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Sidransky H, Friedman L. The effect of cortisone and antibiotic agents on experimental pulmonary aspergillosis. Am J Pathol 1959; 35: 169–183.
Davies SF, Sarosi GA. Aspergillosis in the immunosuppressed patient. In: Al-Doory Y, Wagner GE, eds. Aspergillosis. Springfield: Thomas, 1985: 96–114.
Brown E, Freedman S, Arbeit R, Come S. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in an apparently nonimmunocompromised host. Am J Med 1980; 69: 624 627.
Cooper JAD, Weinbaum DL, Aldrich TK, Mandell GL. Invasive aspergillosis of the lung and pericardium in a nonimmunocompromised 33-year-old man. Am J Med 1981; 71: 903–907.
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Libshitz HI, Pagani JJ. Aspergillosis and mucormycosis: Two types of opportunistic fungal pneumonia. Radiology 1981; 140: 301–306.
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Mucormycosis
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Coccidioidomycosis
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Drutz DJ, Catanzaro A. Coccidioidomycosis: part I. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978; 117: 559–585.
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Ampel NM, Ryan KJ, Carry PJ, Wieden MA, Schifman RB. Fungemia due to Coccidioides immitis: An analysis of 16 episodes in 15 patients and a review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 1986; 65: 312–321.
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McClatchie S,Warambo MW, Bremner AD. Myospherulosis: A previously unreported disease? Am J Clin Pathol 1969; 51: 699–704.
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Pseudallescheriasis
Jung JY, Salas R, Almond CH, Saab S, Reyna R. The role of surgery in the management of pulmonary monosporiosis: A collective review. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1977; 73: 139–144.
Lutwick LI, Galgiani JN, Johnson RH, Stevens DA. Visceral fungal infections due to Petriellidium boydii (Allescheria boydii): In vitro drug sensitivity studies. Am J Med 1976; 61:632–640.
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McGinnis MR, Padhye AA, Ajello L. Pseudallescheria Negroni et Fischer, 1943 and its later synonym Petriellidium Malloch, 1970. Mycotaxon 1982; 14: 94–102.
Arnett JC, Hatch HB. Pulmonary allescheriasis: Report of a case and review of the literature. Arch Intern Med 1975; 135: 1250–1253.
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Enggano IL, Hughes WT, Kalwinsky DK, Pearson TA, Parham DM, Stass SA. Pseudallescheria boydii in a patient with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1984; 198: 619–622.
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Fusariosis
Young NA, Kwon-Chung KJ, Kubota TT, Jennings AE, Fisher RI. Disseminated infection by Fusarium monili-forme during treatment for malignant lymphoma. J Clin Microbiol 1978; 7: 589–594.
Wheeler MS, McGinnis MR, Schell WA, Walker DH. Fusarium infection in burned patients. Am J Clin Pathol 1981; 75: 304–311.
Blazar BR, Hurd DD, Snover DC, Alexander JW, McGlave PB. Invasive Fusarium infections in bone marrow transplant recipients. Am J Med 1984; 77: 645–651.
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Abramowsky CR, Quinn D, Bradford WD, Conant NF. Systemic infection by Fusarium in a burned child: The emergence of a saprophytic strain. J Pediatr 1974; 84: 561–564.
Cho CT, Vats Ts, Lowman JT, Brandsberg JW, Tosh FE. Fusarium solani infection during treatment for acute leukemia. J Pediatr 1973; 83: 1028–1031.
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Richardson SE, Bannatyne RM, Summerbell RC, Milliken J, Gold R, Weitzman SS. Disseminated fusarial infection in the immunocompromised host. Rev Infect Dis 1988; 10: 1171–1181.
Mutton KJ, Lucas TJ, Harkness JL. Disseminated Fusarium infection. Med J Aust 1980; 2: 624–625.
Young CN, Meyers AM. Opportunistic fungal infection by Fusarium oxysporum in a renal transplant patient. Sabouraudia 1979; 17: 219–223.
Gutmann L, Chou SM, Pore RS. Fusariosis, myasthenic syndrome, and aplastic anemia. Neurology 1975; 25: 922–926.
Trichosporonosis
Rivera R, Cangir A. Trichosporon sepsis and leukemia. Cancer 1975; 36: 1106–1110.
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Winston DJ, Balsley GE, Rhodes J, Linne SR. Disseminated Trichosporon capitatum infection in an immunosuppressed host. Arch Intern Med 1977; 137: 1192–1195.
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Libertin CR, Davies NJ, Halper J, Edson RS, Roberts GD. Invasive disease caused by Trichosporon beigelii. Mayo Clin Proc 1983; 58: 684–686.
Haupt HM, Merz WG, Beschorner WE, Vaughan WP, Saral R. Colonization and infection with Trichosporon species in the immunosuppressed host. J Infect Dis 1983; 147: 199–203.
Bhansali S, Karanes C, Palutke W, Crane L, Kiel R, Ratanatharathorn V. Successful treatment of disseminated Trichosporon beigelii (cutaneum) infection with associated splenic involvement. Cancer (Phila) 1986; 58: 1630–1632.
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Walling DM, McGraw DJ, Merz WG, Karp JE, Hutchins GM. Disseminated infection with Trichosporon beigelii. Rev Infect Dis 1987; 9: 1013–1019.
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Geotrichosis
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Sheehy TW, Honeycutt BK, Spency JT. Geotrichum septicemia. JAMA 1976; 235: 1035–1037.
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Hamilton-Miller JMT. A comparative in vitro study of amphotericin B, clotrimazole and 5-fluorocytosine against clinically isolated yeasts. Sabouraudia 1972; 10: 276–283.
Penicilliosis Marneffei
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Malasseziasis
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Bertini B, Kuttin ES, Beemer AM. Cytopathology of nipple discharge due to Pityrosporum orbiculare and cocci in an elderly woman. Acta Cytol 1975; 19: 38–42.
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Phaeohyphomycosis
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McGinnis MR. Human pathogenic species of Exophiala, Phialophora and Wangiella. In: The black and white yeasts. Sci Pub 356. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 1978: 37–59.
McGinnis MR. Chromoblastomycosis and phaeohyphomycosis: New concepts, diagnosis, and mycology. J Am Acad Dermatol 1983; 8: 1–16.
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Ichinose H. Subcutaneous abscesses due to brown fungi. In: Baker RD, ed. The pathologic anatomy of mycoses: Human infection with fungi, actinomycetes and algae. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1971: 719–730.
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Riley O Jr, Mann SH. Brain abscess caused by Cladosporium trichoides: Review of 3 cases and report of fourth case. Am J Clin Pathol 1960; 33: 525–531.
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Chandler, F.W., Watts, J.C. (1994). Fungal Infections. In: Dail, D.H., Hammar, S.P. (eds) Pulmonary Pathology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-3935-0_11
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